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In response to the increasing global demand for energy, on exploration and development are expanding into frontier areas of the Arctic, where slow-growing tundra vegetation and the underlying permafrost Soils are Very sensitive to disturbance. The creation of vehicle trails on the tundra from seismic exploration for on has accelerated in the past decade, and the cumulative impact represents a geographic footprint that covers a greater extent of Alaska's North Slope tundra than all other direct human impacts combined. Seismic exploration for on and gas was conducted on the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, USA, in the winters of 1984 and 1985. This study documents recovery Of vegetation...
Long-term natural gas contracts and their specific features are at the forefront of legal and policy discussions around the world. Issues like oil price indexation and price reviews, flexibility and take-or-pay clauses or a move to shorter term trading are being debated. This is particularly true for Europe where major changes are taking place, but also in places like Australia and Asia. This study will focus on the antitrust treatment of long-term take-or-pay natural gas contracts and their specific provisions in the European Union and the United States. It will also examine the regulatory treatment of these contracts and the regulatory environment in which these contracts operate. Issues that are covered include...
In the absence of human activities, biological N fixation is the primary source of reactive N, providing about 90–130 Tg N year−1 (Tg = 1012 g) on the continents. Human activities have resulted in the fixation of an additional 150 Tg N year−1 by energy production, fertilizer production, and cultivation of crops (e.g., legumes, rice). Some sinks of anthropogenic N have been estimated (e.g., N2O accumulation in the atmosphere; loss to coastal oceans), however due to the uncertainty around the magnitude of other sinks (e.g., retention in groundwater, soils, or vegetation or denitrification to N2) a possibly large portion of the N fixed by humans is missing. While we know that N is accumulating in the environment,...